431 



py 1 

1 "OREST Working Plan for Land 



BELONQNG TO THE 



CITY OF FALL RIVER 



OH THE 



North Watuppa Watershed. 



BY 

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST SERVICE. 

F. W. RANE, STATE FORESTER. 

H. O. COOK, ASSISTANT IN CHARGE. 




BOSTON: 

WEIGHT & POTTEE FEINTING CO., STATE PEINTEES, 

18 Post Office Square. 

1909. 



Forest Working Plan for Land 



BELONGING TO THE 



CITY OF FALL RIVER 



ON THE 



North Watuppa Watershed. 



BY 

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST SERVICE. 



F. W. RANE, STATE FORESTER. 

H. O. COOK, Assistant in Charge. 




BOSTON: 

AYEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 

18 Post Office Square. 

1909. 



^ 



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Approved by 
The State Board of Publicatiox. 



Preface 



At the invitation of the Reservoir Commission of the City of Fall 
River, — a Board created for the purpose of protecting the purity 
of the city's water supply, — the State Forester's department has 
made an examination of the watershed of the North Watuppa Pond, 
located in the city of Fall River and the town of Westport, and here- 
with presents the results of said examination, with such recommenda- 
tions as to it seem wise. 

This publication is printed by the Massachusetts State Forester, 
believing that, while primarily it is of direct application to the handling 
of the particular work at Fall River, secondarily such a treatise cannot 
help being of valuable assistance in carrying out and developing equally 
good work for other cities and towns, not only in Massachusetts, but 
throughout New England and elsewhere. It speaks volumes for what 
municipal forests can accomplish. 

Acknowledgments. 
To ]Mr. H. O. Cook, M.F., my assistant in charge, is due the credit 
of carrying out and completing this work; and to His Honor Mayor 
John F. Coughlin, City Water Commissioner Wm. Sullivan and City 
Engineer Philip D. Borden of the Reservoir Commission we are greatly 
indebted for their interest and many courtesies. 

F. W. RANE, 

State Forester. 
State House, Boston, Mass. 



Part I. 



Influence of Forests on Water Supplies. 
Although this is a subject of great importance to this country, and 
one much discussed of late, it has never been carefully studied. Even 
European foresters, who have investigated this subject for many years, 
have not as yet established their final conclusions covering the whole 
field. That a relation does exist is indisputable, for forest destruction 
always produces a change in the character of the stream flow. 

Influence of Forests on Rainfall. 
Rainfall is caused by the cooling of moisture-laden air to below the 
dew point. Forests shade the ground, making it cooler and conse- 
quently keeping the air above it at a lower temperature than that of 
the surrounding air. It is reasonable to suppose that rain might fall 
over a forested area when it would not if that area were cleared. On 
the western prairies this is a popular conviction, but observations 
made in Europe have yielded conflicting results, and no definite con- 
clusion can be drawn from them. 

Influence upon the Disposal of Rainfall. 
It is after the rain has reached the earth that the forest exerts its 
most potent influence. Rainfall escapes in four ways from the ground 
upon which it falls: by evaporation, transpiration, surface run-off and 
seepage run-off. 

Evaporation. 
The rapidity with which moisture evaporates depends on its ex- 
posure to the sun and wind. A thick forest cover shades the ground 
from the direct rays of the sun, thus preventing too rapid evaporation. 
Experiment has shown that from the surface of a small pond, situated 
in the open, three to four times as much evaporation took place as 
from a similar sheet of water in the forest. Experiments made on 
the surface soil in California gave practically the same results. From 
1,000 square centimeters of bare ground 5,730 grams of water were 



evaporated in the months of July and August; while from ground 
under a heavy mulch of leaves on the forest floor it was but 1,150 grams. 
In the thick spruce woods of Maine one will often find snow on the 
ground in June, whereas in the open it disappeared before the first of 
May. Evaporation is profoundly affected by wind. Observations 
of the United States Weather Bureau indicate that with a wind velocity 
of 5 miles an hour, other conditions being equal, the rate of evaporation 
is 2.2 times that of a calm; at 10 miles an hour, 3.8; at 20 miles, 5.7; 
and so on. It will be readily seen that, by the check in the velocity 
of the wind that a forest cover causes, the amount of water lost in this 
way is greatly reduced. Not only is the force of the wind broken 
within the woodland, but it is retarded for a considerable distance to 
the leeward. In general, the retardation is felt over 20 feet of hori- 
zontal distance for every foot in the height of the trees. Thus a stand 
of trees 50 feet in height all around North Watuppa Pond would 
materially reduce the evaporation caused by the wind over a water 
surface of 1.4 square mile, or about one-half the total area of the pond. 

Transpiration. 

Vegetation in the process of growth uses up a large amount of water, 
which is gathered from the soil by the roots and is then transpired to 
the air through the leaves. Only a small portion of it remains in the 
structure of the plant. From a lengthy series of experiments, Risler 
came to the conclusion that a forest takes up less than one-half as 
much water as an ordinary agricultural crop. We infer from this that 
a soil covered with grass or other herbaceous growth loses more 
moisture from this cause than one covered by a forest. 

Different species of trees take up varying amounts of water. For 
deciduous species the average amount during one season is 470 pounds - 
of water for every pound of leaf matter; but in the case of coniferous 
trees it is but 43 pounds, or one-tenth as much. In one or two other 
respects a broad-leaf wood has slight advantages over the evergreen 
one as a conserver of moisture; but this matter of transpiration points 
to the latter as the most efficient protector of water supplies. 

Evaporation and transpiration represent actual losses of water. 
Just how i;;reat this loss is, will appear from the following table, taken 
from the excellent report of the Reservoir Commission for 1902. We 
are indebted to Mr. Safford's work for a great deal of careful informa- 
tion used directly and indirectly in this report. This table shows the 
precipitation on the watershed of North Watuppa Pond, compared 
with the amount of water which found its way into the pond, for the 
dift'erent months of the years 1899 to 1902. On the average, nearly 



50 per cent, of the total rainfall was lost. Although there were un- 
doubtedly other factors of waste, the larger part of the loss must have 
come from evaporation and transpiration. A minus sign indicates 
that the evaporation from the water surface was greater than the total 
amount coming into the pond; consequently, the amount collected 
was a minus quantity. 



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Distribution of the Run-off. 

There are two kinds of run-off, surface and seepage. The first is 
on the whole harmful, while the latter is beneficial. On cleared land 
the soil becomes baked and hardened by the sun, so that when the 
rain falls on it the water runs over the surface to the nearest stream. 
If the rain is heavy or the slope steep, the soil is washed and the brooks 
become filled with sediment and impurities. The forest, on the other 
hand, is provided with a floor of vegetable material, decayed leaves 
and branches, called humus, anywhere from 2 inches to 2 feet in the 
thickness. This humus has great absorbing powers, and acts as a 
huge sponge, converting the surface drainage into a seepage run-oft". 
Ebermayer estimates that the water-storing capacity of humus is 
considerably more than its own weight; while Henry, from laboratory 
experiments, "Revue des Eaux et Forets," makes it four times its own 
weight. The interlocked roots of the trees prevent any washing of 
the soil. 

By converting a surface run-off into a seepage run-off, water which 
comes in the season of excess rainfall is kept in the ground to feed the 
springs during the time when rainfall is deficient. It is not generally 
considered that this region has a distinct rainy season, but there is a 
period in the year when more than the average amount of rain falls. 
The following table shows the average monthly rainfall for the region 
to be 3.96 inches; for the four months December to March inclusive 
it is 4.24 inches, and during the months from June to September it 
averages 3.50 inches a month, — a loss of about 17 per cent, from the 
winter average. 



Average Monthly Rainfall (Inches). 







Fall River 








Fall River 


Water Works 


Providence, 


New Bedford, 




Water Works 


Average for 


Average 


Average 


Months. 


for 1899, 


Twenty-nine 


for Seventy 


for Seventy 




' Old Gauge." 


"iears, 
"Old Gauge." 


"iears. 


Years. 


January, ..... 


5.84 


4.91 


4.08 


4.08 


February, 






4.11 


4.41 


3.80 


3.71 


March, 








7.44 


5.19 


4.17 


4.29 


April, 








2.92 


4 22 


3.72 


3.95 


May, 








1.82 


3.91 


3.80 


4.02 


June, 








4.46 


3.02 


3.17 


3.05 


July. 








3.37 


3.64 


3.32 


3.31 


August, . 








1.85 


4.29 


4.13 


4.02 


September, 








7.90 


3.41 


3.26 


3.39 


October, . 








2.. 39 


4.68 


3.73 


3.98 


November, 








2.44 


5.36 


4.16 


4.29 


December, 








1.45 


4.02 


3.91 


4.24 


Totals, 








45.99 


^ 51.06 


45.25 


46.33 



10 



The excess amount of rainfall comes at a time when the least amount 
of water is being used by the citizens of Fall River. The following 
table gives the monthly and average daily consumption, as indicated 
by the gauges at the water works, for the year 1901. The increase in 
the summer consumption is at times nearly 50 per cent. This and 
other causes, such as increased evaporation, makes a loss in the water 
stored in the pond during the warm months. 



Consumption for 1901. 



Months. 


Total Con- 
sumption of 
Water from 
Water Works 

Report 
(U. S. Gals.). 


Gain 

in Water 

stored in 

North Pond 

during Month 

(U. S. Gals.). 


Loss 

in Water 

stored in 

North Pond 

during Month 

(U. S. Gals.). 


Consumption 

of Water, 

Average Daily 

for Month, 

from Water 

Works Report 

(U. S. Gals.). 


January, . 

February, . 

March, 

April, 

May, 

June, 

July, 

August, 

September, 

October, . 

November, 

December, , 








97,758,000 

90,661,000 

99,353,000 

95,435,000 

105,380,000 

112,160,000 

126,741,000 

121,262,000 

122,440,000 

122,095,000 

112,680,000 

114,875,000 


24,136,000 

701,128,000 

827,254,000 

87,696,000 

633,152,000 


90,967,000 

137,196,000 
408,037,000 
390,986,000 
325,630,000 
219,712,000 
99,263,000 ' 


3,121,000 
3,238,000 
3,205,000 
3,181,000 
3,399,000 
3,739,000 
4,088,000 
3,912,000 
4,081,000 
3,939,000 
3,756,000 
3,706,000 


Totals, 
Average, 


1,320,840,000 


2,273,366,000 


1,671,791,000 


3,619,000 



If a dam could be constructed at the "Narrows" which would hold 
all the excess of water that would accumulate in the winter months, 
the regulation of the run-off by the forest cover would not hold such 
an important place in this report. But because of riparian rights held 
by the Reservoir Company, which controls the water power for the 
mills on the Quequechan River, the city is obliged to let the water 
flow freely from North Pond into South Pond until the level of the 
former is 40 inches below full pond, after which they can shut the 
flowage down to 5,000,000 gallons a day. In other words, it is im- 
possible for the city to lay up a store of water in North Pond against 
the time of need; they can only husband it when the time of need 
arrives. The rainfall must b^ stored in the earth, and to bring this 
about, the watershed of the pond must have a forest cover. 



11 



Purifying Influence of Forests on Water. 
We could not find that any investigations on this subject have ever 
been made. It seems reasonable to suppose that forests do exert some 
influence in this direction, because water is purified by percolating 
through the earth, so that a seepage run-oft' should yield a better supply 
of water than a run-oft' from the surface. In a table taken from Mr. 
Saft'ord's report, which gives the results of analyses made by the State 
Board of Health on samples of water from the pond and from its 
various feeders, we find that the water in the pond is considerably the 
purer. As only about 50 per cent, of the water supply of the pond 
comes through the brooks or by direct precipitation, the remainder 
must be fed to it by springs in the bottom of the pond. We conclude, 
therefore, that the water from these springs (deep seepage flow) is 
purer than that of the brooks, which carry a deal of surface run-off, 
and the standard of purity of the whole pond is raised thereby. 



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13 



Forestry from a Commercial Standpoint. 

Although it is in its relation to water supply that the woodland 
around North Watuppa Pond interests us chiefly, there is a financial 
side to forestry which is worth noting. In Europe, trees are raised 
and harvested like an agricultural crop; and in time we in this country 
must come to the same methods. There is an important dift'erence 
between agriculture and forestry, in that trees take many years to grow, 
while the agricultural crop is raised and harvested in a single season. 
This time element prevents many people from taking much interest 
in tree culture, for they cannot see the advantage in investing in a 
property the returns from which they may not live to enjoy. In the 
case of a municipality or a State, however, this objection does not 
hold, because their span of life is, theoretically at least, without limit. 
They need have no fear that they will not live to realize on their in- 
vestment. 

It is in Germany that forestry was first practised, and where it 
has reached its highest development. What the results have been is 
told in Circular No. 140 of the United States Forest Service. The 
chapter of that document which relates to Germany is quoted in full, 
as follows : — 

Germany. 

The German Empire has nearly 35,000,000 acres of forest, of which 
31.9 per cent, belongs to the State, 1.8 per cent, to the Crown, 16.1 per 
cent, to communities, 46.5 per cent, to private persons, 1.6 per cent, to 
corporations, and the remainder to institutions and associations. There 
is a little over three-fifths of an acre of forest for each citizen, and, though 
53 cubic feet of wood to the acre are produced in a year, wood imports 
have increasingly exceeded wood exports for over forty years, and 
300,000,000 cubic feet, valued at $80,000,000, or over one-sixth of the 
home consumption, are now imported each year. Germany's drains on 
foreign countries are in the following order: Austria-Hungary, 19,750,000 
tons; Russia and Finland, 18,000,000 tons; Sweden, 508,000 tons; the 
United States, 360,000 tons; Norway, 49,000 tons.' 

German forestry is remarkable in three ways. It has always led in 
scientific thoroughness, and now it is working out results with an exact- 
ness almost equal to that of the laboratory; it has appfied this scientific 
knowledge with the greatest technical success; and it has solved the 
problem of securing through a long series of years an increasing forest 
output and increasing profits at the same time. 

Like other advanced European countries, Germany felt the pinch of 
wood shortage a hundred and fifty years ago, and, though this shortage 

' According to the kind of wood, a ton is equivalent to from about 500 to about 1,000 
board feet. 



u 

was relieved by the coming of the railroads, which opened up new forests, 
and by the use of coal, which substituted a new fuel for wood, the warning 
was heeded, and systematic State forestry was begun. After all, the 
scare was not a false one, for even to-day Germany is not independent 
as regards wood, since she has to import one-sixth of all she uses. 

In addition to the wood-supply (juestion, Germany was forced to 
undertake forestry by the need of protecting agriculture and stream 
flow. The troubles which France was having with her mountain tor- 
rents oj^ened the eyes of the Germans to the dangers from floods in their 
own land. As a result, the maintenance of protective forests was pro- 
vided for by Bavaria in 1852, by Prussia in 1875, and by Wiirttemberg 
in 1879. 

Each State of the German federation administers its own forests. 
All of the States practise forestry with success. The results obtained 
by Prussia and Saxony are particularly interesting, for they show how 
forests may be kept constantly improving under a system of manage- 
ment which yields a handsome profit.' 

The Prussian forests, covering nearly 7,000,000 acres, are made up 
much as if we should combine the pineries of the Southern States with 
the forests of some of our Middle Atlantic and Central States. When 
forestry was begun, a great part of them had been injured by mismanage- 
ment, much as our forests have been, and the Prussian foresters had to 
solve the problem of improving the run-down forests out of the returns 
from those which were still in good condition. They solved it with strik- 
ing success. Immense improvement has already taken place and is 
steadily going on. 

The method of management adopted calls for a sustained yield, — 
that is, no more wood is cut than the forest produces. Under this manage- 
ment the growth of the forest, and consequently the amount cut, has 
risen sharply. In 1830 the yield was 20 cubic feet per acre; in 1865, 
24 cubic feet; in 1890, 52 cubic feet; and in 1904, 65 cubic feet. In 
other words, Prussian forest management has multiplied the rate of 
production threefold in seventy-five years. And the quality of the 
product has improved with the quantity. Between 1830 and 1904 the 
percentage of saw timber rose from 19 per cent, to 54 per cent. 

It is a striking fact in this connection that in the United States at 
the present time we are using about three times as much timber as our 
forests grow. If we were everywhere practising forestry with a result- 
ing improvement equal to that made in Prussia, our forests would be 
growing as much as we use. 

The financial returns in Prussia make an even better showing. Net 
returns per acre in 1850 were 28 cents. In 1865 they were 72 cents; 
in 1900, $1.58; and in 1904, $2.50. They are now nearly ten times what 
they were sixty years ago, and the\' are increasing more rapidly than 
ever. 

' See " Financial Results of Forest Management," by Dr. B. E. Fernow in " Forestry and 
Irrigation" for February, 1907. 



15 

These results have been obtained in Prussia along with almost ideal 
technical success. When what is wanted is a sustained yield from the 
forest year by year in the long run, it is clearly necessary to have always 
a certain number of trees ready to be cut; there must be a proper pro- 
portion of trees of all ages. This percentage has been secured and main- 
tained with almost mathematical accuracy. 

In Saxony, which has about 430,000 acres of State forests, the in- 
crease of cut under forest management, which always means also a cor- 
responding increase in wood produced, has been nearly as marked as in 
Prussia. The yield rose 55 per cent, between 1820 and 1904, and is now 
93 cubic feet per acre, — greater than that of the Prussian forests. Since 
the chief wood is spruce, which yields more saw timber than the average 
of trees making up the Prussian forests, the increase in the percentage 
of saw timber in Saxony naturally exceeds the increase in Prussia. It 
increased from 26 per cent, in 1830 to 66 per cent, in 1904. The net 
yearly revenue is $5.30 per acre. The yearly expense is $3 per acre. 

These figures are in striking contrast with the corresponding ones 
for the United States. We spent on our national forests last year 9^^ mills 
per acre, and our net revenue from them was less than | mill per acre. 

The rise in prices, felt everywhere, accounts only in part for the in- 
creased financial returns from forestry in these two States; for, while 
the prices have not cjuite trebled, the revenue has been multiplied ten- 
fold. 

Other German States, smaller, and with better kinds of timber and 
better market facihties, secure even higher returns. The forests of Wiirt- 
temberg yield a net annual revenue of nearly $6 per acre, and those of 
several smaller administrations do even better. 

A number of the private forests of Germany are managed with great 
success. As a result of a canvass of 15,600,000 acres of State, municipal 
and private forests, it was found that the average net revenue per acre, 
from good, bad and indifferent land, was $2.40 a year. 

What, then, has forestry done in Germany? Starting with forests 
which were in as bad shape as many of our own which have been reck- 
lessly cut over, it raised the average yield of wood per acre from 20 cubic 
feet in 1830 to 65 cubic feet in 1904. During the same period of time it 
trebled the proportion of saw timber got from the average cut; which 
means, in other words, that through the practice of forestry the timber- 
lands of Germany are of three times better quality to-day than when 
no system was used. And in fifty-four years it increased the money 
returns from an average acre of forest sevenfold. 

Yet to-day the forests are in better condition than ever before, and 
under the present system of management it is possible for the German 
foresters to say with absolute certainty that the high yield and large 
returns which the forests now give will be continued indefinitely into the 
future. 



16 



Part II. 



Topography. 

The basin or watershed of North Watuppa Pond is small in com- 
parison to the size of the pond. On the west side it consists of a strip 
of land averaging one-half mile in width, and with a rather steep slope 
down to the shore of the pond. In the center, however, there is a 
depression formed by the valleys of Terry and Highland brooks, which 
causes the limits of the watershed to extend back to a distance of a 
mile or more. On this inhabited side of the pond the soil is thin and 
underlaid with numerous ledges. There is but little swamp land, 
and what there is is found only along the shore of the pond and on the 
banks of the brooks. 

On the eastern shore the watershed broadens out, and extends up a 
gentle slope to the summit and ridge of Copecut Hill. It averages 
one and one-half miles in width except in the southern part, where the 
watershed of Bread and Cheese Brook encroaches on that of the pond. 
The ground is so level here that the limits of the two basins are not 
readily distinguishable. From Blossom's Cove a swampy depression 
extends far back into the flanks of Copecut Hill, and includes most of 
the watersheds of King Philip and Blossom brooks. The soil on this 
side of the pond is generally a deep and stony sandy loam, well adapted 
to tree growth. 

At the northerly end of the pond a basin with rather steep sides 
extends back for about a mile, and then ends abruptly. This basin 
is intersected by several small brooks, which are bordered by much 
swampy land. 

The Map. 

Before making definite recommendations for the care and reforesta- 
tion of the large area of land which the city of Fall River owns 
around North Watuppa Pond, it was necessary to make the ac- 
companying map. This land had all been surveyed to determine 
the limits of the watershed, the roads located and the lot lines run; 
but there was nothing to indicate the character of the land, — what is 
woodland and what is not, or what 'kind of woodland it is. It is evi- 




SMALL HARDWOODS. 
(Colored Yellow on Map. 



17 

dent that if the boundaries of the fifteen types of land into which the 
area was divided were run out by the ordinary methods of survey, the 
work would take a long time and considerable money. Foresters 
have a method of map making which is rough and ready, but quick and 
cheap. Briefly, it consisted in running a series of Hues with a hand 
compass and chain from the shore of the pond to the top of the water- 
shed. The average distance between the lines was from 70 to 80 rods. 
On the eastern side topography was put in, but on the opposite side 
the city engineer is doing the same work by accurate methods of survey, 
so that we did not attempt to duplicate this work. The basis of this 
topographical work was obtained by levelling all the roads, and taking 
readings from an aneroid barometer while running the lines. Ordi- 
narily, forest land does not vary a great deal within narrow Hmits; 
, but the territory around the pond has been cut up into many small 
farms and woodlots, so that there is an intricate mingling of different 
types which offered considerable difficulty to a method of survey in- 
tended for large areas of forest in the wilderness. The map serves its 
purpose, however, and that is, to give the approximate area of the 
different types, so that some estimate of the amount of work to be done 
and the cost thereof can be made. 

Types of Land. 

The entire watershed of North Watuppa Pond covers 5,775 acres; 
but as plans are now under way to divert the waters of Cress and 
Highland brooks into the Quequechan River, on account of the 
pollution of their waters, their watersheds were omitted from the map, 
so that the total area surveyed is 4,784 acres. Of this area the city 
owns or controls 2,940, leaving 1,844 still to be acquired by it. 

The whole watershed can be divided into two main types, — land 
with and land without tree growth. A large part of the former is 
around the northern half of the pond. There are 3,232 acres of the 
forested land to 1,552 of the non-forested. Of the city-owned land, 
2,507 acres are forested and 433 acres cleared; while on the private 
land conditions are reversed, only 705 acres being forested and 1,119 
acres cleared. It is unfortunate that so much of the open land that 
should be planted to tree growth is not in the hands of the city. 

For purposes of treatment and description, the area has been divided 
into fifteen different types, ten of which lie in the forested portion of 
the watershed, and the rest includes the cleared portion. Twelve of 
the types are common to both the city and non-city land. 

Even with this rather minute division, there is a good deal of varia- 
tion in a single type. Often it was not easy to decide in what class to 



18 

put a certain lot. A piece of neglected grass land may appear like a 
pasture, or a cut-over maple swamp resemble a bush swamp. The 
differences are not important, however. 

Young Sprout Land. 

This type is found where a hardwood or a mixed hardwood and 
pine growth has been cut off during the past eight or ten years. The 
land is covered with a reproduction growth of oaks and chestnut 
sprouts, which vary in height from 2 feet in the youngest to 15 in the 
oldest. Some stands of thick young birch growth have been included 
in this type, although they are not of sprout origin. On most of this 
land no immediate treatment is necessary, but on lots 106-113 a fire 
ran through the young sprout growth and killed it over an area of 
about 150 acres. In order to restore this area to forest land, it will 
have to be planted. On lots 149, 150, 153, 153B, 157 and 160, which 
have just been cut off, the sprout growth is rather scattered on account 
of the large number of pines contained in the growth. Some planting 
in the open spaces might well be done here. 

This type covers the largest area of all, and is in part the result of 
the policy of the city in buying woodland under the condition that the 
former owner should have the privilege of cutting the wood before a 
certain date. Unless this was done in many cases, the land could not 
be bought at any price; but it is a poor policy, from the view point of 
watershed regulation. 

Cultivated Land. 
Cultivated land means not only land under cultivation, but grass 
land and land occupied by buildings. Out of a total acreage of 
1,117, the city owns but 190, and this area should be planted to tree 
growth. A good wood crop will be found to pay a better rental than 
is now obtained from this farm land as it is let out to be cultivated. 

Maple Swamp. 
This is the name given to the wooded swamp land which follows 
around the shore of the pond and along the courses of the brooks. 
Red or soft maple is the prevailing tree, but birch and alder are often 
mixed with it. The trees are usually small and of no commercial value; 
but the maple swamp area in Blossom Swamp contains some good- 
sized stands, which would be classed with the medium hardwoods. 
Some light thinning might be done in these stands, but in the rest 
of the growth no treatment is necessary. 




MEDIUM HARDWOOD GROWTH. 

(Colored Light Orange on Map.) 



19 



Maple Swamp, with Pine and Hemlocks. 
This is a variation of the above type which is found in the Blossom 
Swamp region, and on the shore of the pond near Blossom's Cove. 
The trees are of good size, especially the pine and hemlock. It is 
estimated that the stand would run 25 cords of hardwoods, 10 cords 
of soft wood and 2 cords of thinning to the acre. As before, a light 
thinning is recommended, which would favor the pine and the hem- 
lock at the expense of the other species. 

Small Hardwoods. 
This is a stage of the sprout growth next above that of the young 
sprout land. It consists of sprouts of oak (white, red and black) and 
chestnut, mixed with occasional specimens of other species, such as 
hickory, ash, maple, sassafras, and in some places pines. Stands of 
gray birch are included in this type also. The trees are from 15 to 30 
feet in height and from 1 to 5 inches in diameter. It is estimated that 
this growth will yield 14 cords of small firewood to the acre, worth on 
the stump about SI. The thinnings will be of no commercial value. 
This type can be given a rather heavier thinning than the others, as 
it is young and vigorous, and will soon fill up all blanks left in the 
cover. The chestnuts should be favored at the expense of the oaks, 
and the occasional pines favored by having the young hardwoods cut 
from around them. 

Medium Hardwoods. 

Sprout hardwood growth which has attained a height of from 25 to 
45 feet and diameters from 3 to 9 inches is put in this class. On 
much of the city land bearing this type the former owners still hold 
options to cut. In a few cases these options have been repurchased, 
and it is recommended that the practice be continued, lest all the 
wooded portion of the watershed be turned into cut-over land. This 
stand is estimated to run 20 cords to the acre, with thinnings which 
will give 1^ cords of small-sized firewood. The stumpage value is 
$1 per cord. 

Large Hardwoods. 

This is a type of small area found chiefly on the western side of the 
pond. On the city land it is composed chiefly of chestnut and red 
oak. Some of the larger trees will make excellent ties or poles, so 
that the stand has a stumpage value considerably in excess of its cord- 
wood value, or about 150 per acre. The thinnings amount to 10 
cords, worth $1 per cord. 



20 



Pine and Hardwoods. 
In this type hardwoods of medium size are mingled with pines of 
somewhat larger size. There are from 3 to 4 cords of pine box 
logs, as well as the regular run of 20 cords of hardwood to the acre. 
With a stumpage value of $5 a cord on the pine and $1 on the cord- 
wood, the value of the stand by the acre is $40. In thinning, the 
pines should be favored, and the yield in cordwood will be the same as 
that of the medium hardwoods, — 2 cords. There will be no box 
logs among the thinnings. 

Pasture and Bush Pasture. 
Pasture land needs no description. Bush pasture is merely pasture 
land which is more than half covered with a growth of blueberry bushes, 
alders, hardback and other impedimenta. This land should be planted 
before the cultivated land, for it is less valuable. Some difficulty 
may be experienced in setting out the trees, but usually room enough 
can be found among the clumps. Where the groups of bushes are 
extensive, lines should be cut through them 4 feet wide and 4 feet 
apart. This means an additional cost of planting of about $2 per 
acre average for all the land. 

Bush Swamp. 
Detached portions of the shore line which are at times covered with 
water produce a thick crop of alder bushes. This type is of no im- 
portance, and no treatment of it need be considered. 

Large Cedar Swamp. 
This name is given to a portion of Blossom Swamp near the road, 
which has a growth peculiar to itself. The trees are chiefly coniferous. 
The leading species are pine, white cedar, hemlock and soft maple. 
Many of the trees are of box-log size, and the stand is therefore quite 
valuable. This stand is estimated to run 20 cords of box logs and 10 
cords of hardwoods to the acre, which makes the stumpage value 
about $100 per acre. Although only a light thinning can be made 
in this swamp land, there are 1 cord of firewood and 2 cords of sound 
dead cedar which can be removed, — a value of $5 per acre. 

Blossom Grove. 
This is a group of large trees situated on the westerly side of Blossom 
Road, near the Cove. There are probably 100 M. board feet of lumber, 
mostly hemlock, since the pine has been cut, and worth on the stump 
$10 per 1,000, or $1,000 in all. 




LARGE HARDWOODS. 

(Colored Dark Orange on Map.) 



21 



Valuation. 

We give below an estimate of the value of the timber growth which 
is of commercial value and is found on the city-owned land. This is 
the stumpage value, — that is, the value as it stands before being cut. 



Blossom Grove type, 3 acres, 100 M. board feet timber, . 

Large cedar swamp, 29 acres, 900 cords of wood, at $100 per acre, 

Pine and hardwoods, 102 acres, at $40 per acre. 

Large hardwoods, 81 acres, at $50 per acre, 

Medium hardwoods, 230 acres, at $20 per acre. 

Small hardwoods, 405 acres, at $14 per acre, . 

Maple, pine and hemlock, 42 acres, at $75 per acre,. 



$1,000 
2,900 
4,080 
4,050 
4,600 
5,670 
3,150 



Total stumpage of the woodland, not including that of the maple swamp, is . S25,450 

Thinning. 

The principle which underlies thinning is to be found in the struggle 
for existence and the survival of the fittest. For instance, on sprout 
land just cut off, a large number of young shoots spring up. For a 
time all grow vigorously, but as their crowns spread and meet a struggle 
ensues, during which the less active members are overtopped and cut 
off from the sunlight, and they die. There are exceptions. Hemlock 
and maple are what are called tolerant trees, and continue to live, 
although in deep shade. This conflict is not confined to any one 
period in the life of the forest, but is going on all the time. In this 
struggle much moisture and mineral elements in the soil are used up 
by trees which will never amount to anything, which elements had 
better be taken up by those who will. 

For the purposes of thinning, four classes of trees are distinguished, 
— dominant, intermediate, suppressed and dead. Dominant trees 
are those which have their crowns in the light. The intermediate are 
crowded between the dominant, and are destined to be suppressed. 
Suppressed trees are those below the intermediate class, and have been 
cut off altogether from the sunlight; they will die in a few years. An 
average thinning would involve the taking out of all the suppressed 
and many of the intermediate class. In watershed protection we must 
be careful not to let in sun enough to dry the soil; so the intermediate 
class should be cut with care. Dead trees have lost their power of 
injuring other growth, but, as they furnish needless food to a forest 
fire, they should also be removed. 

Other things than position determine what trees to come out. One 
of these is the species. Certain kinds are more valuable than others, 
and, other things being equal or nearly so, the most valuable species 
should be left. The order of preference in the neighborhood of Fall 



22 

River would be pine, chestnut, red oak, hemlock, white oak, cedar, 
maple and birch. 

This order may again be modified in many cases by the condition 
of the tree.; as, for example, a dominant pine tree of a valuable species 
might be suffering from a disease, in which case it should come out. 

The task of selecting the trees to be thinned requires considerable ex- 
perience and judgment, and should be in the hands of a trained man. 

Thinnings are usually let out by the cord at a price somewhat in 
advance of that for cutting wood clean, because the process of selection 
makes it slower work. A greater part of the thinnings on the area in 
question, however, will not be fit for cordwood, and laborers working 
for the city have to be paid by the day, at the rate of $2.25. The 
usual basis for reckoning the expense of thinnings must therefore be 
changed. In the small hardwoods two men should be able to cut and 
pile the brush on about 1 acre a day. Among the medium hardwoods 
i of an acre would make a full day's work, and among the large hard- 
woods i of an acre would be the limit even for good choppers, because 
of the large amount of cordwood to be cut and piled. This makes 
the cost of thinning per acre respectively $4.50 to $6 for small hard- 
woods, $10 to $15 for medium, and $18 to $25 on the large. Where 
merchantable cordwood results from this work, its value should be 
deducted from the labor cost in order to obtain the net cost of the work. 
The value of cord wood piled in the woods is equal to its stumpage 
value, averaging $1, plus the average cost of chopping, which is $1.25 
per cord. 

Using the above figures, we obtain the following summary of the 
amount of thinning to be done and the net cost thereof: — 

Small hardwoods: — 

405 acres at $4.50 to $6.00 =$1,822 to $2,430. No returns. 
Medium hardwoods: — 

230 acres at $10 to $15 = $2,300 to $3,450; less 340 cords of wood at $2.25 a cord 
($765), leaves a net cost of $1,535 to $2,685. 
Large hardwoods: — 

81 acres at $18 to $25 = 11,458 to $2,025; less 800 cords of firewood at $2.25 per cord, 
leaves a net profit of $342, or a net cost of $225. 
Pine and hardwoods: — 

102 acres at $10 to $15 = $1,020 to $1,530; less 200 cords of wood at $2 per cord ($400), 
leaves a net cost of $620 to $1,130. 
Large cedar swamp: — 

30 acres at $10 to $15 = $300 to $450; less 30 cords of wood at $1.50 per cord ($45) 
and 60 cords of dead cedar at $1 ($60), leaves a net cost of $200 to $350. 
Maple, pine and hemlock: — 

42 acres at $10 to $15 = $420 to $630; less 80 cords of wood at $1.75 per cord, leaves 
about $300 to $500 as the net cost. 
Total cost of labor, $7,320 to $10,510; value of 1,500 cords of wood, $3,220; total net cost, 
$4,100 to $7,290 on 890 acres. 




LARGE CEDAR SWAMP. 
(Colored Blue on Map.) 



23 



Planting. 
The land to be planted includes the cultivated, the pasture and the 
bush pasture types. There is an addition in the young sprout type 
150 acres which were burnt over at the north end of the pond (lots 
106-113), and some 60 acres, included in lots 149, 150, 153, 157 and 
160, just cut off, where the reproduction is deficient, which might well 
be planted, although this last is not as important as the other areas. 
The tree to use in practically all cases is the white pine, for the follow- 
ing reasons : — 

1. For causes given in the preliminary part of this report, conifers 
are the best protectors of a watershed. 

2. It is one of the most rapid-growing trees in this section. 

3. Of all forest tree seedlings, those of pine can be most readily 
obtained. 

4. The species adapts itself easily to a wide range of soil and 
moisture condition. 

5. White pine wood has a very general usefulness, and is therefore 
readily sold. 

For planting purposes, two and three year old seedlings are used 
most commonly, but on exposed situations and among thick bushes 
one-year transplants are found to do better. These are three-year-old 
seedlings which in the second year were changed to another bed. The 
effect of the transplanting is to give the trees a stockier root 
system. 

American nurserymen charge $4 per 1,000 for the seedlings, and 
$7 for the transplants. They can be obtained in Germany for $1.75 
and $2.50, if bought in quantities of 100,000 or more. Freight, duty 
and other charges add about $2 to this cost. The European stock is 
fully as good as the native, and on account of superior methods of 
packing often arrives on this side in better condition than material 
from nurseries in the middle west. A good planting distance is 6 by 
8 feet, which spacing requires the use of 900 plants to the acre. This 
makes the cost for seedlings average $3.50 per acre for foreign plants 
and $3.90 for native. On cut land which is to be interplanted the 
number of seedlings necessary to supply an acre would not be more 
than 500. 

Four men and a boy make the most effective planting crew. Such 
a squad should set out 4 acres a day. This makes the labor cost $3 
per acre. On the bush pasture there are $2 extra for cutting bushes. 
On the interplanted land the cost would be slightly less, say^ $2 an. 
acre. 



24 

The exception to the white pine planting should be on lot 236. 
White pine is sensitive to strong winds, and on this exposed shore a 
slower-growing tree will do better. Norway pine is advised for use 
here, although the cost of the seedlings of the tree is as high as $8 per 
thousand. 

The following summary gives the area to be planted, and the es- 
timated cost: — 



Cultivated land, 

Pasture land, 

Bush pasture, 

Burned land, . 

Cut land interplanted. 



190 acres at $6.60 to $8.00=$1,235 to $1,520 
93 acres at 6.50 to 8.00= 605 to 744 
67 acres at 8.50 to 10.00= 570 to 670 

150 acres at 8.00 to 10.00= 1,200 to 1,500 
60 acres at 4.00 to 5.00= 210 to 300 



Cultivatedland, lot 236, with Norway pine, 11 acres at 11 .00 to 15.00= 120 to 165 

Adding to this a sum to pay for tools, hauling and storage of seed- 
lings and other incidental charges, brings the cost of the planting 
operations up to $4,000 to $5,000, more or less. 

Fire. 

Considerable care and attention must be given to this subject, 
because there is little profit in spending money on planting and im- 
provement cuttings, if fire is to be allowed to undo the work. Only 
last spring one fire burned over an area of 200 acres at the north end 
of the pond, and another burned some 30 acres just south of the Yellow 
Hill Road. 

The best protection against wood fires is watchfulness and prompt 
rreasures in fighting. At some high point on the west side of the pond 
a small observatory should be built, from which some one with a field 
glass could survey a large part of the watershed. During the danger- 
ous seasons, which are usually from April 1 to May 15 and from 
October 1 to November 15, a man should go twice a day to this station 
and look for possible fires. Stored at some convenient place there 
should be four or five extinguishers, changes for reloading, and a 
number of shovels and hoes ready to be loaded on to a wagon when 
needed. Such an outfit would cost in the neighborhood of $100 to $150. 

As an additional precaution, on both sides of the main roads for a 
distance of 25 feet the underbrush should be cut away and the ground 
burned over. This -work would be done, of course, only on city land, 
and at places where the roads ran through the woods. As far as 
possible, the wood roads should be treated in the same manner. The 
cost of this work is about $20 to $50 per mile, and it would need to 
be repeated every third year, although the succeeding expense would 




LARGE CHESTNUT GROWTH. 
(Colored Dark Orange on Map.) 



25 

not be as great. It is estimated that about 12 miles of these fire fines 
will be sufficient. These lines will not stop a fire unaided, but they 
are convenient places at which to make a stand in cases where the fire 
has too much of a start to permit of its being extinguished in the 
woods. 

Superintendence. 

To carry out the provisions of the above report will require several 
years' time and some thousands of dollars in money. The work 
should have, at the commencement at least, the supervision of a 
trained man. Foresters do not come high. An active young man 
with a college training can be secured at a salary of approximately 
$1,000 a year. He should have as a permanent assistant some man 
fond of outdoor work and fife in the woods. Temporary help needed 
in the work of planting and cutting can be hired from time to time. 
The pay of the assistant would all be included in the general expense 
of the several fines of work. The professional forester would not be 
wholly an extra expense, and about one-half of his salary, representing 
the value of his manual work, should be credited to the expense of the 
work already estimated; the other half represents the value of his 
professional knowledge, and is an additional charge. If this work 
were spread over a period of five years, this additional charge would 
be $2,500. It would be quite essential that the forester have the use 
of a stout horse and wagon, for hauling plant material, carting away 
brush from fire lines, carrying the fire apparatus, etc. This repre- 
sents a charge of about $200 a year, which includes the cost of keeping 
and something for depreciation on the outfit. 

If it is not considered feasible to hire a permanent forester to super- 
vise the work, it might be possible to engage the services of a consulting 
forester, who would give a specified amount of time to the supervision 
of the forestry work on the watershed. Such contracts, we believe, 
often exist between park departments and landscape architects. Of 
course the cost of such supervision would depend entirely on the 
agreement made by the Reservoir Commission and the consulting 
forester; but the figure $500 used in the tables below ought amply to 
cover this item of expense. 

Financial Summary. 

Net cost of thinning work $4,100 to $7,300 

Cost of planting work 4,000 to 5,000 

Fire protection' — 

Apparatus, $100; fire lines, $450 to $600; watch tower, $50, . . 600 to 800 

Net cost of services of a forester, five years, ..... 2,500 

Use of horse and wagon, five years, ....... 1,000 

$12,000 to $16,600 



26 



The cost by years should be apportioned about as follows : — 



First Year. 
First thinning (one-fifth total), 180 acres, 
Planting (one-fifth total), 76 acres, 
Fire apparatus. 
Fire lines (one-half), 
Watch tower, . 
Forester, 

Horse and wagon, 
Tools and supplies. 

Total, 

Thinning (one-fifth), 

Planting (one-fifth). 

Fire lines (one-half), 

Forester, 

Horse and wagon, 

Tools and supplies, . 

Total, 



Second Year. 



S820 to $1,460 
800 to 1,000 
100 to 
225 to 
50 
500 
200 
50 



160 
300 



S2,745 to $3,710 



$820 to $1,460 


800 to 


1,000 


225 to 


300 


500 




200 




20 




. $2,565 to $3,480 



Third Year. 



Thinning, 

Planting, 

Forester, 

Horse and wagon. 

Tools and supplies. 



$820 to $1,460 
800 to 1,000 
500 
200 
50 



Total $2,190 to $3,210 



Fourth Year.* 



Thinning, 

Planting, 

Fire lines, 

Forester, 

Horse, 

Supplies, 

Total, 



$820 to $1,460 
800 to 1,000 
100 to 200 
500 
200 
25 

$2,475 to $3,385 



Sample Acre. — Small, Hardwoods. 













Class I. 


Class H.^ 


Diameter Breast High 

(I.-^CHES). 


s 


s 


5 

-a 
O 


■i 

o 


O 




"3 
o 




1, 
2, 
3, 
4. 
5, 
6, 
7, 










16 


80 
72 
40 
21 


n 

77 

91 

39 

6 


10 
90 


84 

55 

3 


40 

43 


32 
57 
15 


32 

122 

17 


Total, 










16 


213 


226 


100 


142 


83 


72 


- 



Average height. Class I., 32 feet; Class II., 20 feet. Trees to the acre, 850; merchantable 
cordwood, 14 cords; no merchantable yield in thinnings. 

1 Fifth year the same. 

2 Class II. represents the trees that would come out in the work of thinning. 



27 



Sample Acre. — Small to Medium Hardwoods. 









Class I. 


Class II. 


Diameter Breast 
High (Inches). 


O 

-o 


O 
12 


3 




"p. 

05 


o 


ca 
O 




T3 


1, • 

2, . 

3, . 

4, . 

5, . 

6, . 

7, . 

8, . 
10, 






8 
32 

16 


80 
24 
40 

8 


8 

32 
24 
40 


24 

8 
8 


8 


16 


8 
80 
24 


88 


96 
48 
18 


Tota 


1, 


56 


152 


104 


40 


8 


16 


112 


88 


- 



Average height, Class I., 40 feet; Class II., 25 feet. Trees to the acre, 580; merchantable 
cordwood, 16 cords; no merchantable yield in thinnings. 









Sample Acre. 


— Medium 


Hardwoods 


AND Pine. 












Class I. 


Class II. 


Diameter 
Breast High 

(Inches). 


.a 

en 

O 


C3 
O 

-a 





"S. 





c 




i 


s 


D. 






T3 



1, . . . 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


16 


- 


32 


- 


- 


32 


2, 






- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


40 


18 


60 


8 


14 


16 


3, 






32 


- 


8 


14 


8 


32 


8 


- 


- 


8 


- 


19 


4, 






16 


32 


- 


20 


6 


48 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


5, 






16 


16 


8 


- 


6 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


5 


6, 






- 


56 


24 


- 


- 


16 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


7, 






- 


24 


32 


- 


- 


8 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


8, 






- 


8 


24 


■ - 


- 


14 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


9, 






- 


8 


8 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


10, 






- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


5 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


Total, 


64 


144 


104 


34 


20 


123 


64 


18 


92 


16 


14 


- 






Avera 
cc 


?e he 
)rdw 


ight, 
3od, Z 


Class I 
2 cord 


., 45f 
3; pine 


eet; C 
3 box 


lass II 
ogs, 2 


., 30 f 
r cord 


eet. ' 
s; thin 


Frees t 

nings. 


the 
2 core 


acre, 6 

Is. 


90; m 


erchai 


1 table 



28 



Sample Acre. — • Large Hardwoods, Chestnut and Red Oak. 





Class 1. 


Class II. 


(Inches). 


Chestnut. 


Red Oak. 


Chestnut. 


Red Oak. 


Dead. 


2 


- 


- 


- 


16 


- 


3 . 


- 


- 


- 


32 


7 


4 


8 


- 


12 


32 


30 


5 


- 


- 


8 


36 


5 


6 


8 


- 


32 


14 


- 


7 


16 


24 


16 


- 


- 


8 


32 


40 


- 


- 


- 


9 


48 


16 


- 


- 


- 


10 


32 


- 


- 


- 


- 


11 


29 


- 


- 


- 


- 


Total 


163 


80 


68 


130 


42 



Average height, chestnut. Class I., 58 feet; Class II., 45 feet; oaks, Class I., 52 feet; Class 
II., 38 feet. Trees to the acre, 440; firewood, 32 cords; ties, 92; thinnings, 11 cords. 



Sample Acre. — Large Ced.'^.r Swamp, Coniferous Swamp Growth. 





Class I. 


Class II. 


Diameter Breast High 


















(Inches). 




E 




^ 






^ 

o 






■f 


IH 


o. 


S 


OS 

-a 


"c. 


£ 


-o 




o 




S 


W 


O 


S 


W 


P 


3 


12 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


4 


4 


4 


8 


- 


- 


- 


8 


4 


4 


12 


5 


12 


- 


8 


8 


- 


- 


4 


16 


6 


8 


4 


12 


8 


- 


- 


- 


12 


7 


28 


4 


20 


16 


- 


- 


- 


4 


8 


52 


12 


16 


12 


- 


- 


- 


4 


9 


36 


- 


8 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


10, 


24 


4 


8 


12 


- 


- 


- 


- 


11 


12 


4 


16 


4 


- 


- 


- 


- 


12 


8 


8 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


13 


- 


8 


- 


- 


- 


- 


~ 


- 


Total 


150 


44 


88 


60 


8 


4 


12 


52 



Average height. Class I., cedar, 45 feet; pine, 60 feet; maple, 60 feet; hemlock, 50 feet; 
Class II., all 40 feet. Trees to the acre, 366; merchantable conifers, 27 cords; mer- 
chantable thinnings, 1 cord; dead cedar, 2 cords; maple, 10 cords. 



' Largely cedars in sound condition. 



29 



Sample Acre. — Large Hardwoods in Low, Moist Land. 











Class I. 


Class IL 


Diameter Breast High 
(Inches). 


O 

■a 


03 
O 

2 


"3. 


5 

& 
_o 


J3 


o. 

(2 


s 


"3. 


o 

P3 


1 


S 


1, ■ 

2, . 

3, . 

4, . 

5, . 

6, . 

7, . 

8, . 

9, . 
10, 
11, 
12, 
13, 
H, 
16, 
17, 








4 
8 
8 
4 

24 
8 

12 
4 

4 

4 


24 

16 
12 

8 
4 


36 
8 

16 
4 
4 

16 
8 

20 
4 


8 
4 

8 


8 
8 


8 


4 

32 
20 
12 

4 


16 
40 

4 


4 

28 

4 

8 


12 

8 


36 
30 
12 

8 


Tota 


1, 


80 


68 


116 


20 


16 


8 


72 


60 


44 


20 


86 



Average height. Class I., 60 feet; Class II., 30 feet. Trees to the acre, 502; after thinning, 
308; merchantable oordwood, 42 cords; merchantable thinnings, 1^ cords; brush 
wood, 2 cords. 



^^mmmmmmmKfmmfmfimmmmmKKmm^ 




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